Cause and Effect Research

A treasured area of my personal bookcase contains over two dozen special science volumes. The authors are a group of scientists from the Christian organization Reasons to Believe. Each RTB scientist voices strong support for the conflation of science and Christian faith. The promotion of this linkage is unusual in our world where science is promoted as a secular activity: According to the tradition of our day, science should not have any connection with religion or Christian theology. The secularization of science was a landmark trend beginning in the 19th century. In one of our past posts from 2011 we discussed the issue in some detail:

https://jasscience.blogspot.com/2011/08/secularization-of-science.html

In spite of the movement toward secularization, a significant number of scientists still endorse the strong linkage between the Creator and scientific knowledge. Astrophysicist Hugh Ross has become well known for articulating this connection. Dr. Ross tells the fascinating story of how the latest research into origins not only has sealed the case for divine creation, but has revealed the identity of the Creator Himself. The RTB organization was founded in 1986. 

In 1993 our family visited the Wheaton College bookstore—our daughter had just been enrolled at Wheaton. One of the early publications of the newly founded Reasons to Believe ministry was the well known book The Fingerprint of God. The book was published in 1991. I purchased a copy and presented it to my father. The memory of our bookstore visit rekindled recollections of my then octogenarian father who was uniquely blessed by the ministry of RTB and their early efforts to connect science and faith. In succeeding years Dr. Ross has enlisted many fine scholars to highlight and strengthen the science/faith connection. Ross has been a guest on the John Ankerberg Show several times. 

On a personal level we must state that both my father and I were affirmed in our faith by the RTB ministry. Weeks after our visit to the Wheaton bookstore, I was pleased to discover he was devouring The Fingerprint of God and other RTB publications such as The Creator and the Cosmos and Beyond the Cosmos. He ordered these by mail on his own. In my possession is a book, The Genesis Question, (1998), personally autographed “To Paul, Praise for His glory revealed to us all! Hugh Ross Ps. 50:6.” My father’s eyes were failing from macular degeneration, but he retained enough vision to read difficult books! He was even able to view Comet Hale-Bopp through an Astroscan telescope. (Check our post from 12/25/21.) 

We wrote the following tribute to “Dad” a few days after he departed this life in August 1999: “This life chronicle would not be complete without a description of one of Dad’s greatest joys in his last five years. He became interested in the writings of several committed Christian scientists who promoted the idea that modern scientific discoveries, particularly in the last 20 years, instead of threatening the foundation of our faith, actually bolster the witness of scripture concerning the evidence for God’s existence and His characteristics. Dad devoured these writings word for word, concept for concept. He would gaze at the sky and the forest with more appreciation and knowledge than ever before. How he was able to read so extensively with such impaired vision we hardly understand. The increase in Dad’s grasp of the greatness and majesty of God was inspiring. I hasten to add that the grasp was exceedingly strong already! He came to understand that in the realm of science and theology, from the macrocosm to the microcosm ‘facts are the crucial foundation for meaningful faith.’ There were numerous times over the years that our questions or comments about scriptural matters would evoke wonderfully enriching and informative discussions, nourished by Dad’s enormous  knowledge of the scriptures (he studied scripture and scripture commentaries all his life). The scientific books expanded our theological discussions to a new dimension.”

Our ability to seek knowledge of God is a bountiful gift. Through science we are able to observe the reality of our existence and establish that God is the omnipotent, ultimate Cause of all things. Through science we are able to accurately observe effects. Through science we are able to establish truth and separate truth from ideology. 

   

    

Causes and Effects

 Science is basically a study of causes and their effects: In simplest terms one event or action is the direct result of a previous event or action. Scientists must insure that their judgements are not compromised by errant thinking, particularly with respect to ultimate causes. For example, does God exist and did He create and design the characteristics present in our universe? 

Scientific literature offers evidence that effects in the world of our everyday experience are produced by definite causes. Scientists have developed formal methods for accurately determining the chain of events sequence. When we determine the sequence we discover truths about the world of reality permeating our universe.  Understanding causality demands a heavy dose of scientific knowledge gained from systematic study. The Creator of All Things has implanted in humans the ability to investigate cause and effect without error.

We speak of a fundamental pairing of phenomena we observe daily. Our ability to study causal relationships is a gift of the Creator. Consider the term for God we have used many times: the Creator of All Things. This includes our ability to detect ever-present relationships in which we are immersed every moment of our lives. These relationships include (1) characteristics and behavior of the physical, material universe, (2) the characteristics and behavior of living things, and even (3) the phenomenon of human consciousness. Humans are unique in their consciousness of God—the ultimate “Cause.”

Very young children observe cause/effect phenomena when parents place action toys in their play pen. Older children identify these phenomena during their playground games. The same children become aware of human relationships when they are trained to obey and be respectful of others. They quickly learned causes and effects of their behavior—sometimes appropriate, sometimes inappropriate. As teenagers and young adults, they may have deep questions about how the universe began. Did the universe always exist, or did the universe have a beginning? Was there an omnipotent Beginner, an ultimate Cause to whom humans owe allegiance? Wise parents and church leaders are pleased to address young people’s deep, thoughtful questions about the existence of God as the ultimate Cause. This is an awesome responsibility for parents and youth leaders.

The cause/effect relationship is germane to the discussion about the existence and traits of God, the Creator. Is God the divine Cause of All Things? The famous Cosmological Argument  proposes that God’s existence is proven by the fact that “things exist.” This is a heavy exercise in logic, perhaps too deep for most young people. In the absence of concrete proof for God’s divine existence, we must offer relevant evidence short of absolute proof.

 

We reference material from a blog we posted on June 1, 2010. The post refers to God as the Intelligent Designer, another way to describe God as the “Ultimate Cause.” The following excerpts are quotations concerning intuition, sometimes cited in the absence of concrete proof: Intuition is defined as “an immediate apprehension of truth…in the absence of conscious, rational processes.” Intuition is an excellent starting point for discussions of the real world, such as the topic of origins…As an evidentialist, I have confidence in the function of intuition, but only as a prelude to more formal investigative processes of science.

Fundamental questions about the existence of God and His workings in our world and in our lives are some of the most important questions we could ask. What provisions did the Creator make for our redemption? The issues of cause and effect are integrally related to these questions. They help us understand the broad dimensions of God’s loving character and His love for humanity.  

 

 

   

 

   

Telescopic vs. Naked Eye Astronomy

Astronomy purists discuss the merits of telescopic vs naked eye astronomy. There is really no argument. Each observational method has its own advantages. As a science instructor in public school, I had a difficult time paring my astronomy unit to a manageable length in order to cover other areas of the science curriculum.    Meteorology was a close second. My personal instructional preference was naked eye astronomy. The subject matter beckoned on virtually any clear evening.

One favorite personal memory with my grandddaughter comes to mind. It occurred when she was about three years old. This link calls to mind a significant naked eye astronomy experience even for very young children. Maddie’s query “Grandpa, Are those stars”? to her grandfather in 2009 still echoes in my memory:

https://jasscience.blogspot.com/2009/08/are-those-stars.html

Other personal experiences in astronomy were reinforced by both both naked eye and low power telescopic observations. My octogenarian father witnessed the return of Comet Hale-Bopp in 1997 in a low power Astroscan telescope. My grandson observed a close conjunction of Venus and a thin crescent moon in July 2015 and observed, “It looks like a semicolon.” A nearby galaxy, Andromeda, is faintly visible in the night sky if one knows exactly where to look. My uncle once observed the cloud bands of Jupiter through the low power Astroscan telescope. A non-telescope observation of Venus and Mercury rising from the horizon a mere few minutes apart was offered to my students in the total darkness before sunrise in 1997. 

https://jasscience.blogspot.com/2008/10/moment-of-worship.html

Instructor-guided naked eye experiences provide a preliminary introduction to the wonders of our cosmos, but advanced technology has enabled humanity to look into deep space at regions of the sky far beyond the range of naked eye vision. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST), launched in 1990, has performed beautifully to reveal many secrets of astronomy. Joining Hubble in our present day is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). It will peer even more deeply into space than the HST. On Christmas Day 2021 at 7:20 AM EST the James Webb Space Telescope was launched from Europe’s spaceport in French Guiana. In the past seventeen years thousands of scientists, technicians, and engineers from 14 countries have spent 40 million hours perfecting the telescope. Both space telescopes experienced many delays in their construction. The HST orbited close enough to Earth, 340 miles, to be serviced periodically by astronauts in orbit. The JWST will be positioned one million miles from Earth, precluding the possibility of correction or modification.

Both telescopes are capable of “seeing” back in time. The limit of Hubble is about 400 million years from the beginning of time (some would call the beginning of time the “Big Bang event”). The James Webb telescope will be capable of seeing back in time  farther, even to the time when the very first galaxies were divinely created.

https://jasscience.blogspot.com/2021/02/leftovers-of-initial-creation-event.html

Hubble is sensitive mostly in the visible spectrum—the light by which humans see. In contrast, the James Webb telescope is sensitive mostly to infrared light to which human vision is not sensitive. From the HowStuffWorks website: “But while Hubble was a solid undergrad, JWST is hoping to delve a little deeper and come out with an advanced degree.”

As I write this blog entry just a few hours after the successful launch of the JWST, I marvel that the event, after many recent delays, was scheduled for Christmas Day 2021. Christians celebrate December 25 as the birthday of the Son of God who became a man and died to redeem all who believe in Him. Knowingly or not, the secular scientific world has called attention to the God of Creation. He transcends time. His creative works are ongoing. 

 

  

 

Covid: "A Thorn in the Flesh"

Memo to our faithful readers: In September we were suddenly struck by the Covid 19 virus.  This is our first blog entry since the virus struck. We are thankful for the power of bodily healing.

As we write, the new Omicron Covid variant is causing significant alarm among the world’s populace. What we do not know concerning Covid and its rapidly changing variants seems almost worse than what we know. Planet Earth is “significantly a microbe world.” Our bodies are inhabited by many microbes—thousands of different viruses and hundreds of diverse bacteria. Some microbes benefit living things but many are harmful.

In the field of virology, we humbly ask God to give us wisdom to solve our current crisis as we deal with harmful microbes. Pandemics caused by viruses and bacteria have been a concern as long as humans have inhabited the planet.

Even though viruses are not living organisms in the usual sense, they possess genetic information which sometimes adversely affects the function of living things they inhabit. If a virus mutates, it can acquire harmful new characteristics. In September I was struck by a new illness—the Covid 19 virus—a new variety of microbe. For several days I did not attribute my cough and general weakness to Covid. Finally, our family doctor pronounced me and my wife “Covid positive.” Eleanor suffered only a few days of discomfort. But for me, the infection introduced an extended experience of woes. I was a a hospital resident for three and one-half weeks. 

Since returning home, my research has revealed that “brain fog” from the effects of Covid can persist for up to eight months after initial treatment. Not all Covid patients experience identical symptoms. The Covid virus affects individuals in various ways. This fact reinforces the statement in our opening paragraph that what we do not know may be worse than what we know. In my case, I have virtually no memory of events during my hospital sojourn or in the days before my hospital experience. In retrospect, we consider this a blessing.

Many instances of disease are cited in Scripture. Jesus Christ was known as “The Great Physician,” providing cures for various diseases. Many diseases described in both Old and New Testament scripture were caused by the action of microbes. 2 Corinthians12 describes a serious malady suffered by the Apostle Paul. Three times the Apostle pleaded with the Lord to deliver him from the affliction. The Lord said, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.” Even though Paul possessed miraculous abilities through God’s power, in this case God did not provide healing for him. 2 Cor. 12: explains the refusal: God wanted to keep Paul from becoming too conceited (vs 7). We may not be satisfied with this explanation. 

Christians look forward to the New Creation described in Rev. 21-22. God will wipe away every tear from our eyes. The complex physical operating system of our present universe is an ongoing miracle of existence. My personal experience strengthened my faith. We give God praise.      

 

  

Is Behavior Genetically Hardwired?

 In our last post we used the expressions “It’s in my genes” and “It’s in my DNA.” These popular conversational utterances indicate there is a cause and effect relationship between molecular genetics and morphological, functional, and behavioral traits in all organisms.

Living things exist with the DNA molecule inherent in their body cells. Therefore, the effects of DNA are hardwired in the bodies of all living things—the effects of DNA are ever present. DNA is a complex, information rich chemical entity. Bioscientists agree that form or morphology (physical characteristics), body function, and behavioral traits are hardwired in living things to varying degrees, thanks to DNA. Hardwiring is a descriptive term for a permanent physical feature, as in the example of electrical circuits in a home or factory meant to be functionally long lasting and intrinsic. In living things, hardwired DNA control is intrinsic. 

With respect to human life, bioscientists agree that physical characteristics (morphological traits) are genetically hardwired. We do not have control over the shape of our nose or our hair color. In similar fashion, most body functions such as metabolism rate, physical growth rate, and heart rate, are essentially separate from our conscious control. But with behavior, humans have far more conscious control than lower animals. Behavior in living things is often not easy to explain.

Molecular structure affects variations in morphology, function, and behavior. This is the reason for the question “Is Behavior Genetically Hardwired?” in our post title. Molecular geneticists study how differences in the structure and/or expression of genetic molecules result in variation among living organisms. This specialized study surely ranks among the most fascinating in all of science. It may be one of the ultimate topics in the study of scientific cause and effect.

Bioscientists have established that genetic molecules such as DNA drive the production of the physical form of living organisms as well as their functional processes such as body metabolism and growth. Before dealing specifically with the genetic basis for behavior, consider the challenges involved, for example, in determining how DNA and RNA are responsible for producing thousands of proteins, the “building blocks” of our body’s physical form. The process inspires a deep sense of wonder.

Consider the incredible challenge our body’s protein building mechanism faces after following the DNA code for protein synthesis. The body first produces a series of protein polymers—long ribbons of amino acids. Those protein polymers must then be folded. We quote Mark Zimmer, a computational chemist writing in The Conversation, December 2020: Protein folding is…..“a process of twisting and bending that transforms the original form of protein—long chains of amino acids linked together like beads on a string—to a three-dimensional structure that can interact with its target in the cell.” Artists’ conceptions of folded proteins challenge our imagination. Proteins fold into many thousands of different 3-D shapes. The correct shape (form) of a folded protein molecule is crucial for human health. (Recall the scientific principle “Form fits function.”) Errors or defects in protein folding result in Alzheimer’s disease, cystic fibrosis, and a host of other human diseases.

Mark Zimmer, already quoted above, refers to the “protein folding problem.” The process of protein folding is easily described, but virtually impossible to explain. Similarly, another mystery of life, dubbed the “problem of consciousness” is nearly impossible to explain. Scientists continue to probe problems in science, not hopelessly, but hopefully! 

Is behavior genetically hardwired? My qualified answer is, “Yes.” We may describe the phenomenon of behavior very well, but we may be unable to explain behavior with the same degree of certainty. Behavior is both intrinsic and learned to varying degrees. Complex behaviors for simple animals is clearly hardwired, but genetic factors create a framework within which environmental factors may also act to shape behavior. Complex human behaviors are mostly the result of learning and conscious decision-making, but genetics is most important in explaining human morphology and function. The study of epigenetics in the last several decades extends our knowledge of gene expression and the behavioral outcomes of environmental factors beyond the protein coding of the DNA molecule.

In terms of distinguishing between genetic and environmental causes and effects, we tread on some of the mysteries of life itself. Our understanding of life, our understanding of deeper explanations of morphology, function, and behavior in terms of what actually happens as living things manifest the characteristics of life, leads us on a fascinating investigative adventure.

Our Creator is the Author of life itself. He is the Source and Sustainer of life. The study of life is not merely an academic, scientific pursuit. Beyond that, life is a source of wonder, devotion, and worship of the Creator of All Things. We link a past post from 2013: “What is Life?”…..

https://jasscience.blogspot.com/2013/07/what-is-life.html

     

 

  

Contemplating Genetic Variability

 Our previous post highlighted a unique animal—the eastern cicada killer wasp (phylum Arthropoda, order Hymenoptera, species Sphecius Speciosus). The post related some details of a recent family experience when our grandchildren encountered one of these wasps dragging its “kill” toward its underground burrow. It was an event to inspire admiration and respect from the grandfather and significant fear from some of the grandchildren. By coincidence, my pest service representative arrived a few days later for his regular visit to treat insect pests at our residence. Not knowing of our experience, he raised an unusual topic. Some of his customers a few doors away had just instructed him to “get rid of” cicada killer wasps inhabiting their property. This triggered a conversation and mutual agreement that generally, all wasps provide far more benefit than harm.

First-hand experience with neighborhood cicada killer wasps ignited other interesting discussions with friends. Some deeper discussions trended toward the genetic basis of morphology and unique behavior of these wasps. But what about the diversity of appearance and behavior in thousands of other species? Why do swarms of insects torment us in springtime? Or how does the last summer generation of beautiful Monarch butterflies know how to navigate to a tiny mountain forest site in southern Mexico? For observant, thoughtful, contemplative observers, morphology and behavior provide opportunities not only to describe, but also to explain the morphology and behavior of ALL living things in our neighborhood and on our planet. Description is easy; explanation is difficult! 

We discuss a few highlights of the wonders of genetics. Examples below come from human genetics but our discussion concerning DNA, RNA, chromosomes, genes, proteins, codes, and codons applies to ALL living species. Genetics is an important topic in biology. From this term comes the more familiar exclamation, “It’s in my genes,” a term relating to one’s physical appearance or innate functional and behavioral traits. The popular statement “It’s in my DNA” is a take-off on the same expression. In the last seven decades our populace has been apprised of important details concerning the structure and function of the DNA molecule, thanks to the landmark discoveries of scientists James Watson and Francis Crick in the mid-20th century. Since then our knowledge of genetics has expanded exponentially. 

Each of trillions of human cells in the human body contains 23 chromosome pairs located in the cell nucleus. Every chromosome is a “tightly wound” DNA molecule possessing numerous specific strands along its length. These key locations are termed genes—special segments of the magnificent DNA molecule. They are the ‘units of heredity’ on the DNA molecule. Why are they called units of heredity? Certain genes possess a “code” for the manufacture of proteins, the building blocks of one’s physical body. Protein building blocks are arranged in unique ways in each human body. We are able to observe living things as well as fellow human beings and make conclusions about their heredity. Their physical and behavioral characteristics were inherited, conferred to them from previous generations.              

Altogether, there are about 20,000 genes distributed along human DNA molecules on 23 chromosome pairs. Lower numbered, larger chromosomes have more genes—specific segments of the entire DNA sequence of base pairs. For example, chromosome 1 has 2058 genes which “code for proteins.” Chromosome 22 has only 488 protein coding genes. In short, the protein coding mechanism relates to the sequence of chemical compounds (bases) arranged linearly on DNA and RNA molecules. A great majority of genes do not code for proteins, but they have many other important functions in living things. 

DNA is found in the nucleus of almost all body cells. The DNA molecule must be transcribed to a similar chemical molecule called RNA and is re-located outside the nucleus in the cell’s cytoplasm. In cytoplasm the work of synthesizing and manufacturing proteins is accomplished. The sequence of four chemical bases on the strand of the RNA molecule (A, G, C, and U) may occur in many different ways. In the wisdom of the Creator, any three of these could occur randomly in any order just by chance. In God’s creative wisdom, however, twenty special combinations of three chemical bases code for each of twenty known amino acids, components of all proteins on Planet Earth. The combinations of three chemical bases are known as codons. The coding process is always the product of an intelligent mind.   

The human body’s “building blocks” are really ‘proteins,’ sometimes lengthy chains of amino acids assembled in the cell’s cytoplasm from unique combinations of twenty amino acids. An array of protein building blocks is specific to each human on Earth. No two human beings are identical in appearance. (The exception is identical twins who share identical genetic traits.) Thousands of different proteins comprise each human body assembled in unique ways. Various estimates of the number of different proteins existing on our planet range far beyond one million. Humans possess tens of thousands of different proteins.

Our post has discussed only two living creatures—cicada killer wasps and humans! There are up to ten million separate species of living things on Planet Earth. The Creator of ALL Things has used the same template of life to create ALL living things.

We close with verses from Psalms which could apply to the wonder of living things “great and small,” from giant animals to humans to wasps to even tinier creatures. Only one of these living things is created imago dei (made in God’s image). We alone can learn and contemplate the beauty of God’s creative power and ability.

I praise you because I m fearfully and wonderfully made; your works are wonderful, I know that full well…..How precious to me are your thoughts, O God! How vast is the sum of them! Were I to count them, they would outnumber the grains of sand. (Psalm 139:14, 17-18 NIV)    

 

  

   

 

    

  

          

 

  

"Bugged" by Cicada Killers?

 One source of joy and fascination for grandparents consists of sharing their knowledge and enthusiasm with grandchildren. Knowledge and enthusiasm take diverse forms. Likewise, the abilities and interests of our grandchildren are also diverse. The challenge for grandparents is how to blend their personal abilities and interests with those of grandchildren. 

Your author’s profession as teacher of science in public school has provided some advantages while interacting with grandchildren. He was able to take advantage of “The Science Wow Factor” to fascinate his grands when they visited. His challenge was to avoid overkill, permitting young children to be creative yet safely make science discoveries by themselves. 

http://jasscience.blogspot.com/2008/07/wow-factor.html

A few days ago four grandchildren and “Grandpa” visited our nearby lake for a quick, informal fishing experience on a hot summer day. The success score: three small sunfish/bluegills for two grandsons. The fish were quickly returned to their natural environment—an example of “catch and release” fishing. Afterward we were hiking across the field to our car. Our granddaughter came upon a fascinating event. A cicada killer wasp had captured a dog-day cicada much larger than itself and was energetically dragging it toward its underground burrow. Reference books supply pictures of this natural phenomenon and describe the fascinating sequence of events leading up to the main event. For example, several weeks in advance the female wasp  excavates the underground burrow to a vertical depth of twelve inches, complete with side tunnels. The cicada is hunted, anesthetized with a quick sting, and flown to its underground lair—a challenging aeronautical feat. After the cicada prey is dragged into its subterranean home, the female wasp deposits its egg. The egg hatches, transforms to a larva which feeds on the cicada, then overwinters as a pupa. It emerges as a new generation cicada killer the next summer.

Wasps inspire both healthy and unhealthy fear in both adults and children. Insects, particularly wasps and bees, are more interested in their own welfare and safety than searching out humans to sting. As Grandpa and four grandchildren observed the wonder of the cicada killer’s amazing feat, I counseled the children not to shrink back or cry out in horror as if to escape a dreadful wasp attack. Rather, they should quietly observe the spectacular natural event. 

Cicada killers help control the cicada population. Most predatory insects such as wasps are part of the natural system acting to maintain an ecological balance among thousands of various species. In light of the fact that cicada killer wasp males never sting and females rarely if ever sting, we should respectfully leave these animals alone. They are part of a healthy ecological system.  

The unique behavior of cicada killer wasps is genetically programmed. In researching the meaning of this phrase we discovered a quote highlighting the complexity and mystery of this concept: “Complex behavioral traits…..are influenced by tens if not hundreds of genes, each intersecting with the environment and each other in unpredictable ways.” (Benson, Behavioral genetics, meet molecular biology, 2004). Genetic programming enables the wasp to accomplish multiple survival tasks they did not consciously learn. A catalog of abilities manifest by this singular species of wasps strains credibility! 

Beyond the scope of comprehension of our grandchildren, we reference more advanced resources concerning hymenoptera—the biological classification which includes cicada killer wasps. Cicada killers are but one species of wasps. There are 21 species of cicada killer wasps in the world, but only a few in North America. There are more than 30,000 wasp species on Earth. Many articles deal with the unique behaviors of cicada killers. We encourage readers to research the many articles on cicada killer wasps, or any other wondrous wild creatures encountered in your neighborhood.

A final word about hymenoptera, the class of insects to which cicada killers belong. There are 115,000 known species of class hymenoptera in the world: wasps, bees, and ants. Each species possesses stunning genetically programmed functions and behaviors.

Our secular schools possess multiple textbooks on biology. A substantial majority of biology texts tout evolution, but do not mention divine creation as a possible explanatory hypothesis to account for the incredible morphological, functional, and behavioral diversity of millions of species of living things, including this post’s topic du jour, the cicada killer wasp. We quote a passage from an ACS (American Chemical Society) website concerning evolution. It is “…..not a hypothesis but the scientifically accepted explanation of the incontrovertible fact that life and its many forms has changed over the years.” If the ACS article on evolution ended there, we may be able to endorse it. The created world has experienced the appearance of many geologically sudden new forms of life over long periods of planetary time. As conditions changed over vast time periods new forms of animals appeared, examples of “Ongoing Creation.”         

Our blog has described the programmed abilities of many animals, including predation and parasitism. Such features are a source of wonder, not fear. We rejoice in God’s created operational system for our living world, teeming with life. Intuitively, when we examine the intricate design and functional features of living creatures in only one phylum—arthropoda—we sense that these operational features could not have arisen merely by accident without the input of an infinitely intelligent Creator. 

As we studied the world of living things back in the day with our children and grandchildren, I hear myself saying  “God had great ideas!” These were expressions of worship—emotional and intellectual responses to divine natural wonders surrounding us wherever we look.